“A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE INCREASE IN THYROID DISEASE CASES DUE TO THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC”
Main Article Content
Keywords
SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, Overactive thyroid functioning, Grave’s illness syndrome, subacute thyroiditis, hypothyroidism, and nonthyroidal illness syndrome, hyperthyroidism.
Abstract
COVID-19is the pandemic of the new millennium, SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, has been associated with numerous post-infection complications.COVID-19 may result in systemic and pulmonary inflammation, which may have an impact on the function of multiple organs. Information about how COVID-19 and thyroid have emerged and are growing more quickly since March 2020.The virus that infects the thyroid gland and its function is well known to interact intricately with linked inflammatory-immune responses.SARS-CoV-2 combines ACE2 with Trans membrane protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is the essential molecular complex that infects host cells. Remarkably, ACE2 and the thyroid gland expresses TMPRSS2 at higher levels than the lungs do. Our review of the literature revealed more evidence that the entire hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis and the thyroid gland may be relevant targets of damage by SARS-CoV-2.To be more precise, thyroid disorders associated with COVID-19 include thyroid toxicosis, hypothyroidism, and nonthyroidal illness syndrome.
References
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10. Tomer Y, Davies TF. “Infection, thyroid disease, and autoimmunity.” Endocr Rev. 1993;14(1):107–20.
11. Lazartigues E, Qadir MMF, Mauvais-Jarvis F. “Endocrine significance of SARS-CoV-2’s reliance on ACE2” Endocrinology. 2020 78(9) 34-45
12. Martinez Quintero B, Yazbeck C, Sweeney LB. “Thyroiditis: Evaluation and Treatment.” Am Fam Physician. 2021 Dec 1;104(6):609-617.
13. Anaya JM, Monsalve DM, Rojas M, Rodriguez Y, Montoya-Garcia N, ManceraNavarro LM, et al. “Latent rheumatic, thyroid and phospholipid autoimmunity in hospitalized patients with covid-19.” J Transl Autoimmun 2021 4:100091.
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15. Muller I, Cannavaro D, Dazzi D, Covelli D, Mantovani G, Muscatello A, et al. “Sars-Cov-2-Related atypical thyroiditis”. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2020 8(9):739– 41.
16. Chen M, Zhou W, Xu W. “Thyroid function analysis in 50 patients with covid-19: A retrospective study.” Thyroid 2021 31(1):8–11.
17. Khoo B, Tan T, Clarke SA, Mills EG, Patel B, Modi M, et al. “Thyroid function before, during, and after covid-19.” J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021 106(2):e803–e11. .
18. Wang W, Su X, Ding Y, Fan W, Zhou W, Su J, et al. “Thyroid function abnormalities in covid-19 patients”. Front Endocrinol 2020 11:623792.
19. Campi I, Bulgarelli I, Dubini A, Perego GB, Tortorici E, Torlasco C, et al. “The spectrum of thyroid function tests during hospitalization for sars cov-2 infection”. Eur J Endocrinol 2021 184(5):699–709.
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21. Lui DTW, Lee CH, Chow WS, Lee ACH, Tam AR, Fong CHY, et al. “Thyroid dysfunction in relation to immune profile, disease status, and outcome in 191 patients with covid-19”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021 106(2):e926–e35.
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24. James S. “Update on Thyroid Disorders.” UK: National Medicines Information Centre; 2014 56(9) 45-55
25. Vanderpump MP. “The epidemiology of thyroid disease”. Br Med Bull 2011;99:39-51.
26. Bello F, Bakari AG. “Hypothyroidism in adults: A review and recent advances in management.” J Diabetes Endocrinol 2012;3:57-69.
27. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM. “Epidemiology and prevention of clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism”. Thyroid 2002;12:839-47.
28. Andersson M, Takkouche B, Egli I, Allen HE, de Benoist B. “Current global iodine status and progress over the last decade towards the elimination of iodine deficiency”. Bull World Health Organ 2005;83:518-25.
29. Delange F, Bürgi H, Chen ZP, Dunn JT. “World status of monitoring iodine deficiency disorders control programs”. Thyroid 2002;12:915-24.
30. Pinto A, Glick M. “Management of patients with thyroid disease: Oral health considerations.” J Am Dent Assoc 2002;133:849-58.
31. Woeber KA. “Update on the management of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.” Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1067-71.
32. Brent GA. “Clinical practice. Graves’ disease”. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2594-605.
33. Daniels GH, Dayan CM. “Thyroid Disorders (Fast Facts Series): Oxford: Health Press Limited;” 2006 132-135
34. Hermus A, Huysmans D. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD. “Pathogenesis of Nontoxic Diffuse and Nodular Goitre in Werner and Ingbar’s The Thyroid A Fundamental and Clinical Text.” Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. 234 -345.
35. McDermott MT. “Hyperthyroidism. Ann Intern Med” Lancet 2012;157:ITC1-16.
36. Samuels MH. “Hyperthyroidism in Aging. Portland OR: Endotext” MDText. Com, Inc.; 2018. 88(9) 34
37. Franklyn JA, Boelaert K. “Thyrotoxicosis”. Lancet 2012;379:1155-66.
38. Carvalho DD, Rocha DR, Arbex AK. “Hypothyroidism in childhood and adolescence.” Open J Endocr Metab Dis 2016;6:72.
39. Devdhar M, Ousman YH, Burman KD. “Hypothyroidism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am” Thyroid 2007;36:595-615, 5.
40. Durante C, Grani G, Lamartina L, Filetti S, Mandel SJ, Cooper DS. “The diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules: a review.” JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2018;319(9):914–24.
41. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, et al. “American Thyroid Association Management Guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid Cancer”. Thyroid. 2016;26(1):1–133.
42. Lim H, Devesa SS, Sosa JA, Check D, Kitahara CM. “Trends in thyroid cancer incidence and mortality in the United States, 1974–2013”. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2017;317(13):1338–48.
43. Udelsman R, Zhang Y. “The epidemic of thyroid cancer in the United States: the role of endocrinologists and ultrasounds.” Thyroid. 2014;24(3):472–9.
44. Morris LG, Sikora AG, Tosteson TD, Davies L. “The increasing incidence of thyroid cancer: the influence of access to care”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;23(7):885–91.
45. Davies L, Welch HG. “Current thyroid cancer trends in the United States”. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014;140:317–22.
46. Pitoia, F., Trimboli, P. “New insights in thyroid diagnosis and treatment”. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2024 25, 1–3
47. Dunn JT. “Guarding our nation’s thyroid health”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;872:486-8.
48. A. Pizzocaro, P. Colombo, W. Vena et al. “Outcome of Sars-COV2-related thyrotoxicosis in survivors of Covid-19: a prospective study”. Endocrine 2021 73, 255–260 (2021).
49. T. Siriwardhane, K. Krishna, V. Ranganathan et al. “Significance of Anti-TPO as an Early Predictive Marker in Thyroid Disease”.. Autoimmune Dis 2019 55(7), 23-34
50. A. Nalbandian, K. Sehgal, A. Gupta et al. “Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome”. Nat. Med. 2021 27, 601–615
51. H.M. Rando, T.D. Bennett, J.B. Byrd, et al. “Challenges in defining Long COVID: Striking differences across literature, Electronic Health Records, and patient-reported information.” medRxiv. 2021 55(3),78-77
52. T. Murray, Unpacking “long COVID.”. CMAJ 193, 2021 E318–E319
53. Aghini-Lombardi F, Antonangeli L, Martino E, Vitti P, Maccherini D, Leoli F, et al. “The spectrum of thyroid disorders in an iodine-deficient community: The pescopagano survey.” J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999 84(2):561–6
54. Chiovato L, Magri F, Carle A. “Hypothyroidism in context: Where we've been and where we're going”. Adv Ther 2019 36(Suppl 2):47–58.
55. Rotondi M, Coperchini F, Ricci G, Denegri M, Croce L, Ngnitejeu ST, et al. “Detection of sars-Cov-2 receptor ace-2 mrna in thyroid cells: A clue for covid-19- Related subacute thyroiditis”. J endocrinol. Invest 2021 44(5):1085–90.
56. Poma AM, Bonuccelli D, Giannini R, Macerola E, Vignali P, Ugolini C, et al. “Covid-19 autopsy cases: Detection of virus in endocrine tissues”. J endocrinol. Invest 2021 32(8),44
57. Brancatella A, Ricci D, Viola N, Sgrò D, Santini F, Latrofa F. “Subacute thyroiditis after sars-COV-2 infection”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(7)
58. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;
59. Chen M, Zhou W, Xu W. “Thyroid function analysis in 50 patients with COVID-19: A retrospective study”. Arch Intern Med 2020 81(9)
2. Larsen P.R, Davies T.F, Schlumberger M.J, Hay I.D “The thyroid gland. in: Larsen P.R Kronenberg H.M Melmed S Polonsky K.S Williams' textbook of endocrinology”. WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia 2003 10th edition 331-374.
3. Demers L.M, Spencer C “A Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines”. National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry. Thyroid. 2003; 13: 1-126.
4. Astapova I. “Role of co-regulators in metabolic and transcriptional actions of thyroid hormone.” J Mol Endocrinol 2016;56:73-97.
5. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. “A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China” N Engl J Med. 2019 2020;382:727–33.
6. World Health Organization (WHO). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID–19): Situation report, 209.
7. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al. “SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor.” Cell. 2020;181(2):271-80.e8.
8. Ziegler CGK, Allon SJ, Nyquist SK, et al. “SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 is an interferon-stimulated gene in human airway epithelial cells and is detected in specific cell subsets across tissues”. Cell. 2020;181(5):1016-35.e19.
9. Jahanzeb Malik, Syed Muhammad Jawad Zaidi, Ali Umer Waqar, Hashir Khawaja, Asmara Malik, Uzma Ishaq, Abdul Sattar Rana & Ali Haider Awan. “Association of hypothyroidism with acute COVID-19: a systematic review.” Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism 2019 16:5, pages 251-257.
10. Tomer Y, Davies TF. “Infection, thyroid disease, and autoimmunity.” Endocr Rev. 1993;14(1):107–20.
11. Lazartigues E, Qadir MMF, Mauvais-Jarvis F. “Endocrine significance of SARS-CoV-2’s reliance on ACE2” Endocrinology. 2020 78(9) 34-45
12. Martinez Quintero B, Yazbeck C, Sweeney LB. “Thyroiditis: Evaluation and Treatment.” Am Fam Physician. 2021 Dec 1;104(6):609-617.
13. Anaya JM, Monsalve DM, Rojas M, Rodriguez Y, Montoya-Garcia N, ManceraNavarro LM, et al. “Latent rheumatic, thyroid and phospholipid autoimmunity in hospitalized patients with covid-19.” J Transl Autoimmun 2021 4:100091.
14. Lui DTW, Lee CH, Chow WS, Lee ACH, Tam AR, Fong CHY, et al. “Insights from a prospective follow-up of thyroid function and autoimmunity among covid-19 survivors” Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2021 36(3):582–9..
15. Muller I, Cannavaro D, Dazzi D, Covelli D, Mantovani G, Muscatello A, et al. “Sars-Cov-2-Related atypical thyroiditis”. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2020 8(9):739– 41.
16. Chen M, Zhou W, Xu W. “Thyroid function analysis in 50 patients with covid-19: A retrospective study.” Thyroid 2021 31(1):8–11.
17. Khoo B, Tan T, Clarke SA, Mills EG, Patel B, Modi M, et al. “Thyroid function before, during, and after covid-19.” J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021 106(2):e803–e11. .
18. Wang W, Su X, Ding Y, Fan W, Zhou W, Su J, et al. “Thyroid function abnormalities in covid-19 patients”. Front Endocrinol 2020 11:623792.
19. Campi I, Bulgarelli I, Dubini A, Perego GB, Tortorici E, Torlasco C, et al. “The spectrum of thyroid function tests during hospitalization for sars cov-2 infection”. Eur J Endocrinol 2021 184(5):699–709.
20. Lania A, Sandri MT, Cellini M, Mirani M, Lavezzi E, Mazziotti G. “Thyrotoxicosis in patients with covid-19: The thyrcov study”. Eur J Endocrinol 2020 183(4):381–7. doi: 10.1530/EJE-20-0335.
21. Lui DTW, Lee CH, Chow WS, Lee ACH, Tam AR, Fong CHY, et al. “Thyroid dysfunction in relation to immune profile, disease status, and outcome in 191 patients with covid-19”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021 106(2):e926–e35.
22. A. Goyal, Y. Gupta, M. Kalaivani, N. Tandon, “Mild and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection is not associated with progression of thyroid dysfunction or thyroid autoimmunity”. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 2022 5, 7–9
23. B.T. Ngo, P. Marik, P. Kory et al. “The time to offer treatments for COVID-19”. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs. 2021 30, 505–518.
24. James S. “Update on Thyroid Disorders.” UK: National Medicines Information Centre; 2014 56(9) 45-55
25. Vanderpump MP. “The epidemiology of thyroid disease”. Br Med Bull 2011;99:39-51.
26. Bello F, Bakari AG. “Hypothyroidism in adults: A review and recent advances in management.” J Diabetes Endocrinol 2012;3:57-69.
27. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM. “Epidemiology and prevention of clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism”. Thyroid 2002;12:839-47.
28. Andersson M, Takkouche B, Egli I, Allen HE, de Benoist B. “Current global iodine status and progress over the last decade towards the elimination of iodine deficiency”. Bull World Health Organ 2005;83:518-25.
29. Delange F, Bürgi H, Chen ZP, Dunn JT. “World status of monitoring iodine deficiency disorders control programs”. Thyroid 2002;12:915-24.
30. Pinto A, Glick M. “Management of patients with thyroid disease: Oral health considerations.” J Am Dent Assoc 2002;133:849-58.
31. Woeber KA. “Update on the management of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.” Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1067-71.
32. Brent GA. “Clinical practice. Graves’ disease”. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2594-605.
33. Daniels GH, Dayan CM. “Thyroid Disorders (Fast Facts Series): Oxford: Health Press Limited;” 2006 132-135
34. Hermus A, Huysmans D. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD. “Pathogenesis of Nontoxic Diffuse and Nodular Goitre in Werner and Ingbar’s The Thyroid A Fundamental and Clinical Text.” Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. 234 -345.
35. McDermott MT. “Hyperthyroidism. Ann Intern Med” Lancet 2012;157:ITC1-16.
36. Samuels MH. “Hyperthyroidism in Aging. Portland OR: Endotext” MDText. Com, Inc.; 2018. 88(9) 34
37. Franklyn JA, Boelaert K. “Thyrotoxicosis”. Lancet 2012;379:1155-66.
38. Carvalho DD, Rocha DR, Arbex AK. “Hypothyroidism in childhood and adolescence.” Open J Endocr Metab Dis 2016;6:72.
39. Devdhar M, Ousman YH, Burman KD. “Hypothyroidism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am” Thyroid 2007;36:595-615, 5.
40. Durante C, Grani G, Lamartina L, Filetti S, Mandel SJ, Cooper DS. “The diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules: a review.” JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2018;319(9):914–24.
41. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, et al. “American Thyroid Association Management Guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid Cancer”. Thyroid. 2016;26(1):1–133.
42. Lim H, Devesa SS, Sosa JA, Check D, Kitahara CM. “Trends in thyroid cancer incidence and mortality in the United States, 1974–2013”. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2017;317(13):1338–48.
43. Udelsman R, Zhang Y. “The epidemic of thyroid cancer in the United States: the role of endocrinologists and ultrasounds.” Thyroid. 2014;24(3):472–9.
44. Morris LG, Sikora AG, Tosteson TD, Davies L. “The increasing incidence of thyroid cancer: the influence of access to care”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;23(7):885–91.
45. Davies L, Welch HG. “Current thyroid cancer trends in the United States”. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014;140:317–22.
46. Pitoia, F., Trimboli, P. “New insights in thyroid diagnosis and treatment”. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2024 25, 1–3
47. Dunn JT. “Guarding our nation’s thyroid health”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;872:486-8.
48. A. Pizzocaro, P. Colombo, W. Vena et al. “Outcome of Sars-COV2-related thyrotoxicosis in survivors of Covid-19: a prospective study”. Endocrine 2021 73, 255–260 (2021).
49. T. Siriwardhane, K. Krishna, V. Ranganathan et al. “Significance of Anti-TPO as an Early Predictive Marker in Thyroid Disease”.. Autoimmune Dis 2019 55(7), 23-34
50. A. Nalbandian, K. Sehgal, A. Gupta et al. “Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome”. Nat. Med. 2021 27, 601–615
51. H.M. Rando, T.D. Bennett, J.B. Byrd, et al. “Challenges in defining Long COVID: Striking differences across literature, Electronic Health Records, and patient-reported information.” medRxiv. 2021 55(3),78-77
52. T. Murray, Unpacking “long COVID.”. CMAJ 193, 2021 E318–E319
53. Aghini-Lombardi F, Antonangeli L, Martino E, Vitti P, Maccherini D, Leoli F, et al. “The spectrum of thyroid disorders in an iodine-deficient community: The pescopagano survey.” J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999 84(2):561–6
54. Chiovato L, Magri F, Carle A. “Hypothyroidism in context: Where we've been and where we're going”. Adv Ther 2019 36(Suppl 2):47–58.
55. Rotondi M, Coperchini F, Ricci G, Denegri M, Croce L, Ngnitejeu ST, et al. “Detection of sars-Cov-2 receptor ace-2 mrna in thyroid cells: A clue for covid-19- Related subacute thyroiditis”. J endocrinol. Invest 2021 44(5):1085–90.
56. Poma AM, Bonuccelli D, Giannini R, Macerola E, Vignali P, Ugolini C, et al. “Covid-19 autopsy cases: Detection of virus in endocrine tissues”. J endocrinol. Invest 2021 32(8),44
57. Brancatella A, Ricci D, Viola N, Sgrò D, Santini F, Latrofa F. “Subacute thyroiditis after sars-COV-2 infection”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(7)
58. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;
59. Chen M, Zhou W, Xu W. “Thyroid function analysis in 50 patients with COVID-19: A retrospective study”. Arch Intern Med 2020 81(9)
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Dec 11, 2024
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Drashti Desai, Ms. Sonika Rathi, & Dr. Pragnesh Patani. (2024). “A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE INCREASE IN THYROID DISEASE CASES DUE TO THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC”. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(11), 1017-1025. https://doi.org/10.53555/aw0fem88
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Author Biographies
Drashti Desai
Khyati College of Pharmacy, Palodia, Ahmedabad.
Ms. Sonika Rathi
Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacology, Khyati College of Pharmacy, Palodia, Ahmedabad.
Dr. Pragnesh Patani
Principal, Khyati College of Pharmacy, Palodia, Ahmedabad.
How to Cite
Drashti Desai, Ms. Sonika Rathi, & Dr. Pragnesh Patani. (2024). “A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE INCREASE IN THYROID DISEASE CASES DUE TO THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC”. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(11), 1017-1025. https://doi.org/10.53555/aw0fem88