EFFECTS OF AGE, GENDER AND HOLDING ON PAIN RESPONSE DURING INFANT IMMUNIZATION
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Keywords
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Abstract
Determinants of infant pain responses are important when assessing the efficacy of analgesics. In a randomized controlled trial, 106 infants aged 2 to 6 months were positioned either supine (SUP) on the examination table or held (HLD) by a parent during routine immunization in a community pediatric office. There was no difference between the SUP and HLD infants in duration of crying, facial grimacing or visual analogue scale (VAS) pain scores. Similarly gender did not affect pain response. In contrast, 2-month-old infants displayed more pain during immunization than did 4 or 6-month-old infants.
References
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14. Grunau RVE, Craig KD. Pain expression in neonates: facial action and cry. Pain 1987; 28:395- 410.
15. Lilley CM, Craig KD, and Grunau RE. The expression of pain in infants and toddlers:developmental changes in facial action. Pain 1997;72:161-170.
16. Robieux I, Kumar R, Radhakrishnan S, et al. Assessing pain and analgesia with lidocaineprilocaine emulsion in infants and toddlers during venipuncture. J Pediatr 1991; 118:971-973.
17. Korner AF, Thoman EB. The relative efficacy of contact and vestibular-proprioceptive stimulation in soothing infants. Child Dev 1972; 43:443-453.
18. Gregg CL, Haffner ME, Korner AF. The relative efficacy of vestibular-proprioceptive stimulation and the upright position in enhancing visual pursuit in neonates. Child Dev 1976; 47:309-314.
19. Jay SM, Elliot CH, Katz E, et al. Cognitivebehavioral and pharmacologic interventions for childrens' distress during painful medical procedures. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 1987; 55:860-865.
20. Izard CE, Hembree EA, Dougherty LM, et al. Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19- monthold infants following acute pain. Dev Psychol 1983; 19:418-426.
21. Izard CE, Hembree EA, Huebner RR. Infants' emotion expressions to acute pain: developmental change and stability of individual differences. Dev Psychol 1987; 23:105-113.
22. Fitzgerald M. Development of pain mechanisms. Br Med Bull 1991; 47:667-75.
23. Fradet C, McGrath PJ, Kay J, et al. A prospective survey of reactions to blood tests by children and adolescents. Pain 1990; 40:53-60.
24. Taddio A, Goldbach M, Ipp M, et al. Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain responses during vaccination in boys. Lancet. 1995; 345:291-2.
25. Taddio A, Katz J, Ilersich AL, et al. Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccination. Lancet. 1997; 349:599-603.
2. Schecter NL. Management of pain associated with acute medical illness. In: Schecter NL, Berde C, Yaster M, eds. Pain in infants, children and adolescents. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1993:537-546.
3. Taddio A, Nulman I, Goldbach M, et al. Use of lidocaine-prilocaine cream for vaccination pain in infants. J Pediatr 1994; 124:643-648.
4. Hallstrom BJ. Contact comfort: its application to immunization injections. Nurs Res 1968; 17:130-134.
5. Campos RG. Soothing pain-elicited distress in infants with swaddling and pacifiers. Child Dev 1989:781-792.
6. Barr RG, Young SN, Wright JH. "Sucrose analgesia" and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis immunizations at 2 and 4 months. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1995; 16:220-225.
7. Stang HJ, Snellman LW, Condon LM. Beyond dorsal penile nerve block. A more humane circumcision. Pediatrics 1997; 100:e3.
8. Porter FL, Wolf CM, Gold J, et al. Pain and pain management in newborn infants. Pediatrics 1997; 100:626-632.
9. Harlow HF, Zimmerman RR. Affectional responses in the infant monkey. Science 1959; 130:421-432.
10. Gray L, Watt L, Blass EM. Skin-to-skin contact is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics 2000; 105:e14.
11. Porter FL, Wolf CM, Miller JP. Procedural pain in newborn infants: the influence of intensity and development. Pediatrics 1999; 104:e13.
12. Johnston CC, Stevens B, Craig KD, et al. Developmental changes in pain expression in premature, full-term, two- and four-month-old infants. Pain 1993; 52:201-208.
13. Maikler VE. Effects of a skin refrigerant/anesthetic and age on the pain responses of infants receiving immunizations. Res Nurs Health 1991; 12:397-403.
14. Grunau RVE, Craig KD. Pain expression in neonates: facial action and cry. Pain 1987; 28:395- 410.
15. Lilley CM, Craig KD, and Grunau RE. The expression of pain in infants and toddlers:developmental changes in facial action. Pain 1997;72:161-170.
16. Robieux I, Kumar R, Radhakrishnan S, et al. Assessing pain and analgesia with lidocaineprilocaine emulsion in infants and toddlers during venipuncture. J Pediatr 1991; 118:971-973.
17. Korner AF, Thoman EB. The relative efficacy of contact and vestibular-proprioceptive stimulation in soothing infants. Child Dev 1972; 43:443-453.
18. Gregg CL, Haffner ME, Korner AF. The relative efficacy of vestibular-proprioceptive stimulation and the upright position in enhancing visual pursuit in neonates. Child Dev 1976; 47:309-314.
19. Jay SM, Elliot CH, Katz E, et al. Cognitivebehavioral and pharmacologic interventions for childrens' distress during painful medical procedures. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 1987; 55:860-865.
20. Izard CE, Hembree EA, Dougherty LM, et al. Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19- monthold infants following acute pain. Dev Psychol 1983; 19:418-426.
21. Izard CE, Hembree EA, Huebner RR. Infants' emotion expressions to acute pain: developmental change and stability of individual differences. Dev Psychol 1987; 23:105-113.
22. Fitzgerald M. Development of pain mechanisms. Br Med Bull 1991; 47:667-75.
23. Fradet C, McGrath PJ, Kay J, et al. A prospective survey of reactions to blood tests by children and adolescents. Pain 1990; 40:53-60.
24. Taddio A, Goldbach M, Ipp M, et al. Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain responses during vaccination in boys. Lancet. 1995; 345:291-2.
25. Taddio A, Katz J, Ilersich AL, et al. Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccination. Lancet. 1997; 349:599-603.