A NEED FOR CLOSER EXAMINATION OF FASD BY THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM: HAS THE CALL BEEN ANSWERED?
Main Article Content
Keywords
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, justice system, deficits, awareness, false confessions, rehabilitation
Abstract
Individuals with FASD exhibit deficits in many domains that can include memory, learning, behavioural inhibition, executive functioning, interpersonal skills, and language. These deficits have serious implications for affected persons when they become engaged in the legal system. In 2004, Moore and Green reviewed case law and psychological literature which suggested that FASD-related deficits placed affected individuals at a significant disadvantage in the justice system. According to them, this disadvantage stemmed from the limited awareness and knowledge of FASD demonstrated by key players in the justice system, as well as the scarcity of effective interventions in place to rehabilitate affected defendants. The aim of the current paper is to assess the extent to which awareness of FASD-related issues in the Canadian justice system has advanced since the publication of Moore and Green’s conclusions. First, the deficits associated with FASD and their implications for the justice system are described. Next, recent case law and psychological evidence are reviewed as we consider issues of witness reliability and false confessions. The significance of FASD for sentencing, fitness to stand trial, and the Not Criminally Responsible by Reason of Mental Disorder defence are also briefly discussed. Finally, emerging system wide responses to FASD-related issues are presented. Overall, it appears that the call for closer examination of FASD by the justice system has been answered, but a need for increased education and awareness remains.
References
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30. Schonfeld AM, Paley B, Frankel F, O’Connor MH. Executive functioning predicts social skills following prenatal alcohol exposure. Child Neuropsychol 2006;12:439-52.
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41. Kassin S, Kiechel KL. The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychol Sci 1996;7:125-8.
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44. Thorne JC, Coggins TE, Olson HC, Astley SJ. Exploring the utility of narrative analysis in diagnostic decision making: Picture-bound reference, elaboration, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2007;50:459-74.
45. R. v. Switzer [2004] A.J. No. 527; 2004 ABQB 360.
46. R. v. R.L. [2007] O.J. No. 5307
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51. Kassin SM, Wrightsman LS (1985). Confession evidence. In: Kassin S, Wrightsman L, eds. The Psychology of Evidence and Trial Procedure. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1985;67-94.
52. Drizin SA, Leo R. The problem of false confessions in a post-DNA world. N.C.L. Rev 2004;82:891-1003.
53. Ofshe RJ, Leo RA. The social psychology of police interrogation: The theory and classification of true and false confessions. Studies in Law, Politics & Society 1997;16: 189-251.
54. Sherrin C. False confessions and admissions in Canadian Law. QULJ 2005;30:601-659.
55. Scott-Hayward CS. Explaining juvenile false confessions: Adolescent development and police interrogation. Law Psychol Rev 2007;31:53-76.
56. Singh KK, Gudjonsson GH. Interrogative suggestibility among adolescent boys and its relationship with intelligence, memory, and cognitive set. J Adolescence 1992;15:155-61.
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2. Conry J, Fast DK. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and the Criminal Justice System. Vancouver: The Law Foundation of British Columbia, 2000.
3. Fast DK, Conry J, Loock CA. Identifying fetal alcohol syndrome among youth in the criminal justice system. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1999;20:370-2.
4. LaDue R, Dunne T. Legal issues and FAS. In: Streissguth A, Kanter J, eds. The Challenge of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Overcoming Secondary Disabilities. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997:146-61.
5. Moore TE, Green M. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): A need for closer examination by the criminal justice system. Criminal Reports 2004;19:99-108.
6. Green M. A Judicial Perspective. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Justice. (March 1, 2006) http://fasdjustice.on.ca/media/JudgeGreenSpeec h.pdf (January 3, 2011).
7. Koren G, Nulman I, Chudley AE, Loocke C. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. CMAJ 2003;169:1181-5.
8. Streissguth A, Barr H, Kogan J, Bookstein F. Primary and secondary disabilities in fetal alcohol syndrome. In: Streissguth A, Kanter J, eds. The Challenge of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Overcoming Secondary Disabilities. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997:25-39.
9. Institute of Medicine, Committee to Study Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Division of Biobehavioral Sciences and Mental Disorders. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington: National Academy Press, 1996.
10. Autti-Rämö I. Twelve-year follow-up of children exposed to alcohol in utero. Dev Med Child Neurol 2000;42:406-11.
11. Schonfeld AM, Mattson SN, Riley EP. Moral maturity and delinquency after prenatal alcohol exposure. J Stud Alcohol 2005;66:545-54.
12. Streissguth A. Offspring effects of prenatal alcohol exposure from birth to 25 years: The Seattle prospective longitudinal study. J Clin Psychol Med Settings 2007;14:81-101.
13. May PA, Gossage JP. Estimating the prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: a summary. Alcohol Res Health 2001;25:159-67.
14. Chudley AE, Conry J, Cook JL, Loock C, Rosales T, LeBlanc N. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. CMAJ 2005;172:S1-S21. 15.
15. Larroque B, Kaminski M. Prenatal alcohol exposure and development at preschool age: Main results of a French study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998;22:295-303.
16. Burd L, Klug MG, Martsolf JT, Kerbeshian J. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Neuropsychiatric phenomics. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2003;25:697- 705.
17. Burd LJ. Interventions in FASD: We must do better. Child Care Health Dev 2007;33:398-400.
18. Malisza KL. Neuroimaging cognitive function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. International Journal on Disability and Human Development 2007;6:171-88.
19. Rasmussen C, Horne K, Witol A. Neurobehavioral functioning in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Child Neuropsychol 2006;12:453-68.
20. O’Connor MJ, Shah B, Whaley S, Cronin P, Gunderson B, Graham J. Psychiatric illness in a clinical sample of children with prenatal alcohol exposure. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2002;28:743-54.
21. Mattson SN, Calarco KE, Lang AR. Focused and shifting attention in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychology 2006;20:361-9.
22. Uecker A, Nadel L. Spatial locations gone awry: Object and spatial memory deficits in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropsychologia 1996;34:209-23.
23. Connor PD, Sampson PD, Bookstein FL, Barr HM, Streissguth AP. Direct and indirect effects of prenatal alcohol damage on executive function. Dev Neuropsychol 2000;18:331-54.
24. Kaemingk KL, Mulvaney S, Halverson PT. Learning following prenatal alcohol exposure: Performance on verbal and visual multitrial tasks. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2003;18:33-47.
25. Nash K, Rovet J, Greenbaum R, Fantus E, Nulman I, Koren G. Identifying the behavioural phenotype in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: sensitivity, specificity and screening potential. Arch Wom Ment Health 2006;9:181-5.
26. Kodituwakku PW. Defining the behavioral phenotype in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2007;31:192-201.
27. Kodituwakku PW, Handmaker NS, Cutler SK, Weathersby EK, Handmaker SD. Specific impairments in self-regulation in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1995;19: 1558-64.
28. Coggins TE, Timler GR, Olswang LB. A state of double jeopardy: Impact of prenatal alcohol exposure and adverse environments on the social communicative abilities of school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2007;38:117-27.
29. Monnot M, Lovallo WR, Nixon SJ, Ross E. Neurological basis of deficits in affective prosody comprehension among alcoholics and fetal alcohol-exposed adults. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;14:321-8.
30. Schonfeld AM, Paley B, Frankel F, O’Connor MH. Executive functioning predicts social skills following prenatal alcohol exposure. Child Neuropsychol 2006;12:439-52.
31. Mattson SN, Schoenfeld AM, Riley EP. Teratogenic effects of alcohol on brain and behavior. Alcohol Res Health 2001;25:185-91.
32. Page K. Fetal alcohol spectrum - The hidden epidemic in our courts. Juvenile Fam Court J 2001;52:21-32.
33. Page K. The invisible havoc of prenatal alcohol damage. Journal of the Center for Families, Children and the Courts 2002;1-24.
34. Sorge GB. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder persons in Canadian Criminal Proceedings. Proquest Dissertations & Theses Database. 2006.
35. McDonald S, Colombi A, Fraser C. Highlights from FASD Canadian caselaw. Paths to Justice: Research in Brief (Justice Canada). (July 31, 2009) http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/reprap/ 2009/rb09/p1.html (January 18, 2011).
36. Roach K, Bailey A. The relevance of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Canadian criminal law from investigation to sentencing. U B C Law Rev 2009;42:1-68.
37. Burd L, Selfridge RH, Klug MG, Juelson T. Fetal alcohol syndrome in the Canadian corrections system. J FAS Int 2004;1:e1-7.
38. Burd L, Martsolf JT, Juelson T. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in the corrections system: Potential screening strategies. J FAS Int 2004;2:e1-10.
39. Gudjonsson GH. The Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions: A Handbook. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2003.
40. Kassin S. The psychology of confession evidence. Am Psychol 1997;51:221-33.
41. Kassin S, Kiechel KL. The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychol Sci 1996;7:125-8.
42. R. v. B.K.T.S. [2006] M.J. No. 458
43. Fraser C, McDonald S. Victim services workers’ experiences working with victims with FASD. Paths to Justice: Research in Brief (Justice Canada). (July 31, 2009) http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/reprap/ 2009/rb09/p1.html (January 18, 2011).
44. Thorne JC, Coggins TE, Olson HC, Astley SJ. Exploring the utility of narrative analysis in diagnostic decision making: Picture-bound reference, elaboration, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2007;50:459-74.
45. R. v. Switzer [2004] A.J. No. 527; 2004 ABQB 360.
46. R. v. R.L. [2007] O.J. No. 5307
47. R. v. Anderson [2010] Y.J. No. 80
48. R. v. R.T. [2004] B.C.J. No. 2563; 2004 BCCA 633
49. R. v. Walle [2005] A.J. No. 1333
50. Kassin SM, Neumann K. On the power of confession evidence: An experimental test of the fundamental difference hypothesis. Law Human Behav 1997;469-84.
51. Kassin SM, Wrightsman LS (1985). Confession evidence. In: Kassin S, Wrightsman L, eds. The Psychology of Evidence and Trial Procedure. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1985;67-94.
52. Drizin SA, Leo R. The problem of false confessions in a post-DNA world. N.C.L. Rev 2004;82:891-1003.
53. Ofshe RJ, Leo RA. The social psychology of police interrogation: The theory and classification of true and false confessions. Studies in Law, Politics & Society 1997;16: 189-251.
54. Sherrin C. False confessions and admissions in Canadian Law. QULJ 2005;30:601-659.
55. Scott-Hayward CS. Explaining juvenile false confessions: Adolescent development and police interrogation. Law Psychol Rev 2007;31:53-76.
56. Singh KK, Gudjonsson GH. Interrogative suggestibility among adolescent boys and its relationship with intelligence, memory, and cognitive set. J Adolescence 1992;15:155-61.
57. Richardson G, Kelly TP. A study in the relationship between interrogative suggestibility, compliance and social desirability in institutionalised adolescents. Pers Indiv Differ 2004;36:485-94.
58. Alison L, Canter D. Rhetorical shaping in an undercover operation: The investigation of Colin Stagg in the Rachel Nickell murder enquiry. In: Alison L, ed. The Forensic Psychologist’s Casebook: Psychological Profiling and Criminal Investigation. Portland, Oregon, U.S: Willan Publishing, 2005;197-232.
59. Yarmey D. Police investigations. In: Schuller R, Ogoloff J, eds. Introduction to Psychology and Law: Canadian Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000;59-94.
60. R. v. Oickle [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3
61. R .v. S.M.B. [2005] A.J. No. 1647 ABQB 784
62. R. v. D.P. [2004] B.C.J. No. 352; 2004 BCPC 35
63. R. v. D.R.U. [2004] B.C.J. No. 953 BCPC 120
64. R. v. E.A.J. [2005] B.C.J. No. 422; 2005 BCPC 64
65. R. v. J.L.M. [2005] S.J. No. 362
66. R. v. L.A.B. [2007] O.J. No. 4473
67. R. v. P.J.M. [2008] S.J. No. 203
68. R. v.W.A.L.D. (1) [2004] S.J. No. 494 SKPC 87
69. Justice Canada. Criminal Code, R.S.C. 1985, c. C- 46. (December 15, 2010) http://lawslois. justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/index.html (January 20, 2011).
70. Chartrand LN, Forbe-Chilibeck EM. The sentencing of offenders with fetal alcohol syndrome. Health Law J 2003;11:35-70.
71. R. v. I.D.B. [2005] A.J. No. 1827; 2005 ABCA 99
72. R. v. B.T.K.S. [2009] M.J. No. 78
73. R. v. Kendi [2010] Y.J. No. 111
74. R. v. Mumford [2007] O.J. No. 4267
75. R. v. Mumford [2009] O.J. No. 5105
76. R. v. Cook [2010] M.J. No. 237
77. Fraser C. An inventory of programming for youth and adults who have FASD and are involved with the criminal justice system. In Paths to Justice: Research in Brief (Justice Canada). (July 31, 2009) http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/reprap/ 2009/rb09/p1.html (January 18, 2011).
78. R. v. Draper [2010] M.J. No. 94
79. R. v. Dewhurst [2009] Y.J. No. 11
80. R. v. Jobb [2007] S.J. No. 625
81. Verbrugge P. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and the youth criminal justice system: A discussion paper (Justice Canada). (October 2003). http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/reprap/ 2003/rr03_yj6-rr03_jj6/rr03_yj6.pdf (January 10, 2011)
82. J.(D.) v. Yukon Review Board [2000] YTSC 513
83. R. v. D.B. [2004] S.J. No. 185
84. R. v. Sam [2010] Y.J. No. 93
85. Theodore T. Law must adapt to recognize FASD, activists say. The Globe and Mail (October 11, 2010).
86. R. v. Harper [2009] Y.J. No. 14
87. Public Health Agency of Canada. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD): A framework for action. (2005) http://www.phacaspc. gc.ca/publicat/fasd-fw-etcaf-ca/pdf/fasdfw_ e.pdf (June 27, 2011).
88. Fraser C. Summary of a national conference hosted by the Steering Committee on Access to Justice for Individuals with FASD in collaboration with the Department of Justice, Government of Yukon and the Department of Justice Canada, Whitehorse, Yukon, September 17-19, 2008. Paths to Justice: Access to Justice for Individuals with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (Justice Canada). (n.d.) http://www.justice.gov.yk.ca/pdf/Path_to_Justic e_Conference_Final_Report_FINAL_Eng.pdf (January 18, 2011).
89. FASD Ontario Network of Expertise. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Justice. (2011) http://fasdjustice.on.ca (January 13, 2011).
90. Canadian Bar Association. Resolution 10-02-A: Certified copy of a resolution carried by the council of the Canadian Bar Association at the annual meeting held in Niagara, Ontario, August 14-15, 2010. (August 2010) http://www.cba.org/CBA/resolutions/pdf/10-02- A.pdf (June 29, 2011).
91. R. v. Bird [2008] A.J. No. 609
92. Cox L, Clairmont D, Cox S. Knowledge and attitudes of criminal justice professionals in relation to fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Can J Clin Pharm 2008;15:e306-13.
93. R. v. Kishayinew [2010] S.J. No. 464