ALCOHOL- INDUCED BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS IN FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER VERSUS CONFOUNDING BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS
Main Article Content
Keywords
Alcohol, pregnancy, ARND, Alcohol related neurodevelopmental disorder, conduct problems, externalizing behaviour, problem behaviour, maladaptive behaviour, antisocial behaviour, disruptive behaviour, delinquency
Abstract
Prenatal alcohol exposure is strongly associated with disruptive behaviour in childhood and antisocial behaviour later in life. There are numerous confounding risk factors in the lives of alcohol-abusing mothers that may contribute to the behaviour problems seen in their children, rather than direct brain injury by alcohol. In fact, many of these additional environmental and genetic risk factors for childhood behaviour problems co-occur with prenatal alcohol exposure and affect the same child, creating a confluence of risk. As a result, one cannot with any certainty attribute behaviour problems in an individual child to prenatal alcohol exposure. This has important clinical and legal implications.
References
1. Stratton K, Howe C, Battaglia F, editors. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press; 1996
2. Chudley AE, Conry J, Cook JL, Loock C, Rosales T, LeBlanc N, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. CMAJ. 2005 Mar 1;172(5 Suppl):S1-S21.
3. Hoyme HE, May PA, Kalberg WO, Kodituwakku P, Gossage JP, Trujillo PM, et al. A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Clarification of the 1996 institute of medicine criteria. Pediatrics 2005 Jan;115(1):39-47.
4. Hans SL. Demographic and psychosocial characteristics of substance-abusing pregnant women. Clin Perinatol 1999 Mar;26(1):55-74.
5. Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Barr HM, Sampson PD, O'Malley K, Young JK. Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2004 Aug;25(4):228-38.
6. Zeitlin H. Children with alcohol misusing parents. Br Med Bull 1994 Jan;50(1):139-51.
7. Autti-Ramo I, Fagerlund A, Ervalahti N, Loimu L, Korkman M, Hoyme HE. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Finland: Clinical delineation of 77 older children and adolescents. Am J Med Genet A 2006 Jan 15;140(2):137-43.
8. Nash K, Rovet J, Greenbaum R, Fantus E, Nulman I, Koren G. Identifying the behavioural phenotype in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Sensitivity, specificity and screening potential. Arch Womens Ment Health 2006 Jul;9(4):181-6.
9. Rasmussen C, Andrew G, Zwaigenbaum L, Tough S. Neurobehavioural outcomes of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A Canadian perspective. Paediatr Child Health 2008 Mar;13(3): 185-91.
10. Olson HC, Streissguth AP, Sampson PD, Barr HM, Bookstein FL, Thiede K. Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with behavioral and learning problems in early adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997 Sep;36(9):1187-94.
11. Sood B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Nordstrom-Klee B, Ager J, Templin T, et al. Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years: I. dose-response effect. Pediatrics 2001 Aug;108(2):E34.
12. Streissguth AP, Barr HM, Kogan J, Bookstein FL. Understanding the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Grant No. R04/CCR888515;1996.
13. MacPherson, P., & Chudley, A.E. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): Screening and estimating incidence in an adult correctional population. In press 2007.
14. McLennan JD. Critical considerations for intervention planning for children with FASD. In: Riley EP, Clarren S, Weinberg J, Jonsson E, editors. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Management and Policy Perspectives of FASD. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2010. p. 369-86.
15. Farrington DP, Loeber R. Transatlantic replicability of risk factors in the development of delinquency. In: Cohen P, Slomkowski C, Robins LN, editors. Historical and geographical influences on psychopathology. Routledge; 1999. p. 299-329.
16. Toth SL, Manly JT, Cicchetti D. Childhood maltreatment and vulnerability to depression. Development and Psychopathology 1992;4:97- 112.
17. Tremblay RE, Nagin DS, Seguin JR, Zoccolillo M, Zelazo PD, Boivin M, et al. Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. Can Child Adolesc Psychiatr Rev 2005 Feb; 14(1):3-9.
18. Sullivan PF, Wells JE, Bushnell JA. Adoption as a risk factor for mental disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995 Aug; 92(2):119-24.
19. Campbell SB, Pierce EW, Moore G, Marakovitz S, Newby K. Boys' externalizing problems at elementary school age: Pathways from early behavior problems, maternal control, and family stress. Dev Psychopathol 1996;8(04):701-19.
20. Rutter M, Giller H, Hagell A. Antisocial behaviour by young people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998.
21. Webster-Stratton C, Hammond M. Marital conflict management skills, parenting style, and earlyonset conduct problems: Processes and pathways. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1999 Sep;40(6):917- 27.
22. Graham-Bermann SA, Levendosky AA. Social functioning of preschool-age children whose mothers are emotionally and physically abused. Journal of Emotional Abuse 1998;1(1):59-84.
23. Jouriles EN, Murphy CM, O'Leary KD. Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989 Jun;57(3):453-5.
24. Hoffman-Plotkin D, Twentyman CT. A multimodal assessment of behavioral and cognitive deficits in abused and neglected preschoolers. Child Dev. 1984 Jun;55(3):794-802.
25. Kolko DJ. Characteristics of child victims of physical violence - research findings and clinical implications. J Interpers Violence 1992 JUN 1992;7(2):244-76.
26. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT. Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: II. psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996 Oct;35(10):1365-74.
27. Einbender AJ, Friedrich WN. Psychological functioning and behavior of sexually abused girls. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989 Feb;57(1):155-7.
28. Kendall-Tackett KA, Williams LM, Finkelhor D. Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychol Bull 1993 Jan;113(1):164-80.
29. Patterson GR. Coercive family process. Eugene, Or.: Castalia Pub. Co.; 1982.
30. Earls F, Reich W, Jung KG, Cloninger CR. Psychopathology in children of alcoholic and antisocial parents. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1988 Aug;12(4):481-7.
31. Johnson JL, Leff M. Children of substance abusers: Overview of research findings. Pediatrics 1999 May;103(5):1085-99.
32. Hill J. Biological, psychological and social processes in the conduct disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2002 Jan;43(1):133-64.
33. Larsson H, Tuvblad C, Rijsdijk FV, Andershed H, Grann M, Lichtenstein P. A common genetic factor explains the association between psychopathic personality and antisocial behavior. Psychol Med 2007 Jan;37(1):15-26.
34. Hicks BM, Krueger RF, Iacono WG, McGue M, Patrick CJ. Family transmission and heritability of externalizing disorders: A twin-family study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004 Sep;61(9):922-8.
35. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Dinwiddie SH, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Dunne MP, et al. Common genetic risk factors for conduct disorder and alcohol dependence. J Abnorm Psychol 1998 Aug;107(3): 363-74.
36. Bornovalova MA, Hicks BM, Iacono WG, McGue M. Familial transmission and heritability of childhood disruptive disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2010 Sep;167(9):1066-74.
37. Rhee SH, Waldman ID. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol Bull 2002 May;128(3):490-529.
38. Eaves LJ, Silberg JL, Meyer JM, Maes HH, Simonoff E, Pickles A, et al. Genetics and developmental psychopathology: 2. the main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia twin study of adolescent behavioral development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1997 Nov;38(8):965-80.
39. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Dinwiddie SH, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Dunne MP, et al. Modeling genetic and environmental influences in the etiology of conduct disorder: A study of 2,682 adult twin pairs. J Abnorm Psychol 1997 May;106(2):266-79.
40. Gjone H, Stevenson J. The association between internalizing and externalizing behavior in childhood and early adolescence: Genetic of environmental common influences? J Abnorm Child Psychol 1997 Aug;25(4):277-86.
41. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Meyer J, Silberg J, Maes H. Genetic and environmental influences on subtypes of conduct disorder behavior in boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1998 Dec;26(6):495-509.
42. Saudino KJ, Ronald A, Plomin R. The etiology of behavior problems in 7-year-old twins: Substantial genetic influence and negligible shared environmental influence for parent ratings and ratings by same and different teachers. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2005 Feb;33(1):113-30.
43. Simonoff E. Genetic influences on conduct disorder. In: Hill J, Maughan B, editors. Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press; 2001. p. 202-34.
44. Waldron M, Martin NG, Heath AC. Parental alcoholism and offspring behavior problems: Findings in Australian children of twins. Twin Res Hum Genet 2009 Oct;12(5):433-40.
45. King SM, Keyes M, Malone SM, Elkins I, Legrand LN, Iacono WG, et al. Parental alcohol dependence and the transmission of adolescent behavioral disinhibition: A study of adoptive and non-adoptive families. Addiction 2009 Apr;104(4):578-86.
46. Iacono WG, Carlson SR, Taylor J, Elkins IJ, McGue M. Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota twin family study. Dev Psychopathol 1999 Fall;11(4):869-900.
47. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Statham DJ, Martin NG. Personality and the genetic risk for alcohol dependence. J Abnorm Psychol 2002 Feb;111(1):124-33.
48. Bohman M. Predisposition to criminality: Swedish adoption studies in retrospect. Ciba Found Symp. 1996;194:(99)109-14.
49. Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Dodge KA, Rutter M, Taylor A, et al. Nature X nurture: Genetic vulnerabilities interact with physical maltreatment to promote conduct problems. Dev Psychopathol 2005 Winter;17(1):67-84.
50. Dierker LC, Merikangas KR, Szatmari P. Influence of parental concordance for psychiatric disorders on psychopathology in offspring. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999 Mar;38(3):280-8.
51. Vanyukov MM, Neale MC, Moss HB, Tarter RE. Mating assortment and the liability to substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend 1996 Sep;42(1):1-10.
52. Lynch ME, Coles CD, Corley T, Falek A. Examining delinquency in adolescents differentially prenatally exposed to alcohol: The role of proximal and distal risk factors. J Stud Alcohol 2003 Sep;64(5):678-86.
53. D'Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, Rodgers JL, Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB. Causal inferences regarding prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalizing problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007 Nov;64(11):1296-304.
54. Larkby CA, Goldschmidt L, Hanusa BH, Day NL. Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with conduct disorder in adolescence: Findings from a birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2011 Mar;50(3):262-71.
55. Mattson SN, Riley EP. Parent ratings of behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and IQ-matched controls. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000 Feb;24(2):226-31.
56. Disney ER, Iacono W, McGue M, Tully E, Legrand L. Strengthening the case: Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with increased risk for conduct disorder. Pediatrics 2008 Dec;122(6): e1225-30.
57. Barr HM, Bookstein FL, O'Malley KD, Connor PD, Huggins JE, Streissguth AP. Binge drinking during pregnancy as a predictor of psychiatric disorders on the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV in young adult offspring. Am J Psychiatry 2006 Jun;163(6):1061-5.
58. Hill SY, Lowers L, Locke-Wellman J, Shen SA. Maternal smoking and drinking during pregnancy and the risk for child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. J Stud Alcohol 2000 Sep;61(5):661-8.
59. Aase JM, Jones KL, Clarren SK. Do we need the term "FAE"? Pediatrics 1995 03/01;95(3):428-30.
60. Stade BC, Stevens B, Ungar WJ, Beyene J, Koren G. Health-related quality of life of Canadian children and youth prenatally exposed to alcohol. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2006 Oct 13;4:81.
61. Loock C, Conry J, Cook JL, Chudley AE, Rosales T. Identifying fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in primary care. CMAJ 2005 Mar 1;172(5):628-30.
62. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. The effects of the fast track preventive intervention on the development of conduct disorder across childhood. Child Dev 2011 Jan-Feb;82(1): 331-45.
63. Petras H, Kellam SG, Brown CH, Muthen BO, Ialongo NS, Poduska JM. Developmental epidemiological courses leading to antisocial personality disorder and violent and criminal behavior: Effects by young adulthood of a universal preventive intervention in first- and second-grade classrooms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008 Jun 1;95 Suppl 1:S45-59.
64. Paley B, O'Connor MJ. Intervention for individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Treatment approaches and case management. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009;15(3):258-67.
65. Schroter H, Canadian Paediatric Society, First Nations, Inuit and Métis Health Committee. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Diagnostic update. Paediatrics & Child Health 2010;15(7):455-6.
66. Olson HC, Oti R, Gelo J, Beck S. Family matters: fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the family. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009;15(3):235-49.
67. Koren GI, Fantus E, Nulman I. Managing fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in the public school system: A needs assessment pilot. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2010 Winter;17(1):e79-89.
68. Weber MK, Floyd RL, Riley EP, Snider DE,Jr. National task force on fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effect: Defining the national agenda for fetal alcohol syndrome and other prenatal alcohol-related effects. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and Reports / Centers for Disease Control; 2002.
69. .Fast DK, Conry J. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the criminal justice system. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009;15(3):250-7.
2. Chudley AE, Conry J, Cook JL, Loock C, Rosales T, LeBlanc N, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. CMAJ. 2005 Mar 1;172(5 Suppl):S1-S21.
3. Hoyme HE, May PA, Kalberg WO, Kodituwakku P, Gossage JP, Trujillo PM, et al. A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Clarification of the 1996 institute of medicine criteria. Pediatrics 2005 Jan;115(1):39-47.
4. Hans SL. Demographic and psychosocial characteristics of substance-abusing pregnant women. Clin Perinatol 1999 Mar;26(1):55-74.
5. Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Barr HM, Sampson PD, O'Malley K, Young JK. Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2004 Aug;25(4):228-38.
6. Zeitlin H. Children with alcohol misusing parents. Br Med Bull 1994 Jan;50(1):139-51.
7. Autti-Ramo I, Fagerlund A, Ervalahti N, Loimu L, Korkman M, Hoyme HE. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Finland: Clinical delineation of 77 older children and adolescents. Am J Med Genet A 2006 Jan 15;140(2):137-43.
8. Nash K, Rovet J, Greenbaum R, Fantus E, Nulman I, Koren G. Identifying the behavioural phenotype in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Sensitivity, specificity and screening potential. Arch Womens Ment Health 2006 Jul;9(4):181-6.
9. Rasmussen C, Andrew G, Zwaigenbaum L, Tough S. Neurobehavioural outcomes of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A Canadian perspective. Paediatr Child Health 2008 Mar;13(3): 185-91.
10. Olson HC, Streissguth AP, Sampson PD, Barr HM, Bookstein FL, Thiede K. Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with behavioral and learning problems in early adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997 Sep;36(9):1187-94.
11. Sood B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Nordstrom-Klee B, Ager J, Templin T, et al. Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years: I. dose-response effect. Pediatrics 2001 Aug;108(2):E34.
12. Streissguth AP, Barr HM, Kogan J, Bookstein FL. Understanding the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Grant No. R04/CCR888515;1996.
13. MacPherson, P., & Chudley, A.E. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): Screening and estimating incidence in an adult correctional population. In press 2007.
14. McLennan JD. Critical considerations for intervention planning for children with FASD. In: Riley EP, Clarren S, Weinberg J, Jonsson E, editors. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Management and Policy Perspectives of FASD. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2010. p. 369-86.
15. Farrington DP, Loeber R. Transatlantic replicability of risk factors in the development of delinquency. In: Cohen P, Slomkowski C, Robins LN, editors. Historical and geographical influences on psychopathology. Routledge; 1999. p. 299-329.
16. Toth SL, Manly JT, Cicchetti D. Childhood maltreatment and vulnerability to depression. Development and Psychopathology 1992;4:97- 112.
17. Tremblay RE, Nagin DS, Seguin JR, Zoccolillo M, Zelazo PD, Boivin M, et al. Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. Can Child Adolesc Psychiatr Rev 2005 Feb; 14(1):3-9.
18. Sullivan PF, Wells JE, Bushnell JA. Adoption as a risk factor for mental disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995 Aug; 92(2):119-24.
19. Campbell SB, Pierce EW, Moore G, Marakovitz S, Newby K. Boys' externalizing problems at elementary school age: Pathways from early behavior problems, maternal control, and family stress. Dev Psychopathol 1996;8(04):701-19.
20. Rutter M, Giller H, Hagell A. Antisocial behaviour by young people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998.
21. Webster-Stratton C, Hammond M. Marital conflict management skills, parenting style, and earlyonset conduct problems: Processes and pathways. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1999 Sep;40(6):917- 27.
22. Graham-Bermann SA, Levendosky AA. Social functioning of preschool-age children whose mothers are emotionally and physically abused. Journal of Emotional Abuse 1998;1(1):59-84.
23. Jouriles EN, Murphy CM, O'Leary KD. Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989 Jun;57(3):453-5.
24. Hoffman-Plotkin D, Twentyman CT. A multimodal assessment of behavioral and cognitive deficits in abused and neglected preschoolers. Child Dev. 1984 Jun;55(3):794-802.
25. Kolko DJ. Characteristics of child victims of physical violence - research findings and clinical implications. J Interpers Violence 1992 JUN 1992;7(2):244-76.
26. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT. Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: II. psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996 Oct;35(10):1365-74.
27. Einbender AJ, Friedrich WN. Psychological functioning and behavior of sexually abused girls. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989 Feb;57(1):155-7.
28. Kendall-Tackett KA, Williams LM, Finkelhor D. Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychol Bull 1993 Jan;113(1):164-80.
29. Patterson GR. Coercive family process. Eugene, Or.: Castalia Pub. Co.; 1982.
30. Earls F, Reich W, Jung KG, Cloninger CR. Psychopathology in children of alcoholic and antisocial parents. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1988 Aug;12(4):481-7.
31. Johnson JL, Leff M. Children of substance abusers: Overview of research findings. Pediatrics 1999 May;103(5):1085-99.
32. Hill J. Biological, psychological and social processes in the conduct disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2002 Jan;43(1):133-64.
33. Larsson H, Tuvblad C, Rijsdijk FV, Andershed H, Grann M, Lichtenstein P. A common genetic factor explains the association between psychopathic personality and antisocial behavior. Psychol Med 2007 Jan;37(1):15-26.
34. Hicks BM, Krueger RF, Iacono WG, McGue M, Patrick CJ. Family transmission and heritability of externalizing disorders: A twin-family study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004 Sep;61(9):922-8.
35. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Dinwiddie SH, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Dunne MP, et al. Common genetic risk factors for conduct disorder and alcohol dependence. J Abnorm Psychol 1998 Aug;107(3): 363-74.
36. Bornovalova MA, Hicks BM, Iacono WG, McGue M. Familial transmission and heritability of childhood disruptive disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2010 Sep;167(9):1066-74.
37. Rhee SH, Waldman ID. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol Bull 2002 May;128(3):490-529.
38. Eaves LJ, Silberg JL, Meyer JM, Maes HH, Simonoff E, Pickles A, et al. Genetics and developmental psychopathology: 2. the main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia twin study of adolescent behavioral development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1997 Nov;38(8):965-80.
39. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Dinwiddie SH, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Dunne MP, et al. Modeling genetic and environmental influences in the etiology of conduct disorder: A study of 2,682 adult twin pairs. J Abnorm Psychol 1997 May;106(2):266-79.
40. Gjone H, Stevenson J. The association between internalizing and externalizing behavior in childhood and early adolescence: Genetic of environmental common influences? J Abnorm Child Psychol 1997 Aug;25(4):277-86.
41. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Meyer J, Silberg J, Maes H. Genetic and environmental influences on subtypes of conduct disorder behavior in boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1998 Dec;26(6):495-509.
42. Saudino KJ, Ronald A, Plomin R. The etiology of behavior problems in 7-year-old twins: Substantial genetic influence and negligible shared environmental influence for parent ratings and ratings by same and different teachers. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2005 Feb;33(1):113-30.
43. Simonoff E. Genetic influences on conduct disorder. In: Hill J, Maughan B, editors. Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press; 2001. p. 202-34.
44. Waldron M, Martin NG, Heath AC. Parental alcoholism and offspring behavior problems: Findings in Australian children of twins. Twin Res Hum Genet 2009 Oct;12(5):433-40.
45. King SM, Keyes M, Malone SM, Elkins I, Legrand LN, Iacono WG, et al. Parental alcohol dependence and the transmission of adolescent behavioral disinhibition: A study of adoptive and non-adoptive families. Addiction 2009 Apr;104(4):578-86.
46. Iacono WG, Carlson SR, Taylor J, Elkins IJ, McGue M. Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota twin family study. Dev Psychopathol 1999 Fall;11(4):869-900.
47. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Statham DJ, Martin NG. Personality and the genetic risk for alcohol dependence. J Abnorm Psychol 2002 Feb;111(1):124-33.
48. Bohman M. Predisposition to criminality: Swedish adoption studies in retrospect. Ciba Found Symp. 1996;194:(99)109-14.
49. Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Dodge KA, Rutter M, Taylor A, et al. Nature X nurture: Genetic vulnerabilities interact with physical maltreatment to promote conduct problems. Dev Psychopathol 2005 Winter;17(1):67-84.
50. Dierker LC, Merikangas KR, Szatmari P. Influence of parental concordance for psychiatric disorders on psychopathology in offspring. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999 Mar;38(3):280-8.
51. Vanyukov MM, Neale MC, Moss HB, Tarter RE. Mating assortment and the liability to substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend 1996 Sep;42(1):1-10.
52. Lynch ME, Coles CD, Corley T, Falek A. Examining delinquency in adolescents differentially prenatally exposed to alcohol: The role of proximal and distal risk factors. J Stud Alcohol 2003 Sep;64(5):678-86.
53. D'Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, Rodgers JL, Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB. Causal inferences regarding prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalizing problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007 Nov;64(11):1296-304.
54. Larkby CA, Goldschmidt L, Hanusa BH, Day NL. Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with conduct disorder in adolescence: Findings from a birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2011 Mar;50(3):262-71.
55. Mattson SN, Riley EP. Parent ratings of behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and IQ-matched controls. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000 Feb;24(2):226-31.
56. Disney ER, Iacono W, McGue M, Tully E, Legrand L. Strengthening the case: Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with increased risk for conduct disorder. Pediatrics 2008 Dec;122(6): e1225-30.
57. Barr HM, Bookstein FL, O'Malley KD, Connor PD, Huggins JE, Streissguth AP. Binge drinking during pregnancy as a predictor of psychiatric disorders on the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV in young adult offspring. Am J Psychiatry 2006 Jun;163(6):1061-5.
58. Hill SY, Lowers L, Locke-Wellman J, Shen SA. Maternal smoking and drinking during pregnancy and the risk for child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. J Stud Alcohol 2000 Sep;61(5):661-8.
59. Aase JM, Jones KL, Clarren SK. Do we need the term "FAE"? Pediatrics 1995 03/01;95(3):428-30.
60. Stade BC, Stevens B, Ungar WJ, Beyene J, Koren G. Health-related quality of life of Canadian children and youth prenatally exposed to alcohol. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2006 Oct 13;4:81.
61. Loock C, Conry J, Cook JL, Chudley AE, Rosales T. Identifying fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in primary care. CMAJ 2005 Mar 1;172(5):628-30.
62. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. The effects of the fast track preventive intervention on the development of conduct disorder across childhood. Child Dev 2011 Jan-Feb;82(1): 331-45.
63. Petras H, Kellam SG, Brown CH, Muthen BO, Ialongo NS, Poduska JM. Developmental epidemiological courses leading to antisocial personality disorder and violent and criminal behavior: Effects by young adulthood of a universal preventive intervention in first- and second-grade classrooms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008 Jun 1;95 Suppl 1:S45-59.
64. Paley B, O'Connor MJ. Intervention for individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Treatment approaches and case management. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009;15(3):258-67.
65. Schroter H, Canadian Paediatric Society, First Nations, Inuit and Métis Health Committee. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Diagnostic update. Paediatrics & Child Health 2010;15(7):455-6.
66. Olson HC, Oti R, Gelo J, Beck S. Family matters: fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the family. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009;15(3):235-49.
67. Koren GI, Fantus E, Nulman I. Managing fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in the public school system: A needs assessment pilot. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2010 Winter;17(1):e79-89.
68. Weber MK, Floyd RL, Riley EP, Snider DE,Jr. National task force on fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effect: Defining the national agenda for fetal alcohol syndrome and other prenatal alcohol-related effects. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and Reports / Centers for Disease Control; 2002.
69. .Fast DK, Conry J. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the criminal justice system. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009;15(3):250-7.